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This paper was written as an assignment for Ian Walton's Math G - Math for liberal Arts Students - at Mission College.

To explore other such papers go to the Math G Projects Page.
 

During the 1970's the newly established Women's Movement wanted to know the reason why women were congregating to low paying careers. Research discovered that math paved the way to better paying jobs and women were opting to focus on majors in college that required little or no math. Women also only took basic math courses in high school. Women were avoiding math and learning to be afraid of it. And so began the study of "Math Anxiety". We are not born with a fear of math; it's a learned behavior.

This learned behavior that we call Math Anxiety is the way we react to math. Mathematics has such a negative connotation that it can induce emotional stress. No other subject unleashes such anxiety. It usually begins in early childhood due to a negative experience with math. Why are some of us filled with anxiety when it comes to math while others seem to breeze right through? Are boys better at math than girls? Are there some individuals born with an innate ability to do math while others seem to be born with an inability to comprehend it? Is there a "math gene"? The debate over nature verses nurture in mathematical ability goes on today.

Some researchers contend that males have a greater ability to understand math. One such study was conducted by Johns Hopkins Psychologist Camilla Perssons Benbow and Julian C. Stanley as they set out to examine the idea that boys do better than girls in math. They took a group of 7^th and 8^th grade students, whose educational background was virtually the same. Out of 10,000 students, 43% were girls. These students were among the top 2-5% in mathematical ability. The students took the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT), usually given to high school juniors and seniors. In the math portion of the SAT the boys scored higher than the girls. Because of this study Benbow and Stanley were convinced that there was something more than environment that effected the results. Although researchers in the field disagreed with their findings, the media blitz was overwhelming. Thus the idea of the "math gene" was conceived. More recently Benbow and Stanley attributed this higher ability in males to the male sex hormone, testosterone, in the prenatal stage. "Supposedly this hormone strengthens the right hemisphere, the part of the brain specialized in spatial visualization". 1 Researchers claimed that this ability is essential in solving math problems. No one has been able to show evidence of its influence in the brain function in the prenatal stage.

What is spatial ability? There is no definitive agreement of the definition from mathematicians, psychologists or educators. Some say it's the ability to visualize three-dimensional figures in various positions. Others think it's the capability to handle a task involving relationships in space. For example, judging the closeness of an object would demonstrate spatial ability. Anyone who plays ball has some intuitive feeling about spatial relationships. "In women the left hemisphere is supposedly more developed, resulting in greater verbal ability, while men with their right brain superiority are thought to excel in spatial ability. Tests show that both halves of the brain are involved in most mental processes".2 In one study a group of participants was asked to perform two tasks, one requiring spatial ability and the other using numerical judgment. The participants were hooked up to recording electrodes to track the use of the left and right side of the brain during the required tasks. It was discovered that each task displayed an array of electrical activity from both sides of the brain.

"At present we have relatively little information about the interrelationships of brain, ability and learning experiences".3 There are studies verifying that practice can increase spatial ability. Joan Ferrini-Mundy conducted such a study. She gave the women in her calculus class training in imaging a solid figure as it revolved about an axis. She concluded, "practice on spatial tasks enhanced women's ability and tendency to visualize while doing solid-of-revolution problems". The women equaled or surpassed the men in the class. Is spatial ability so important in understanding and doing math? No, it's not always the case. "Some branches of mathematics do not involve spatial relationships at all" 4 Many believe that environment, not genes, is the cause of the male students receiving a higher math score. Sheila Tobias, feminist author of "Overcoming Math Anxiety", stated, "If your mother hates math and your father tells you not to worry your pretty little head about it, do you think that a math test would be an accurate measure of your ability". 5

Some researchers and educators have begun to test the theory of, "If we reward girls differently, will the differences in math scores decrease". 6 In a study published in 1980, Judy Genshaft of Ohio State and Michael Hert of Kent State conducted tests on three dozen girls. Two groups of girls were given extra lessons in reducing their math anxiety. Both groups improved their interest and understanding of mathematics in an eight-week period. The third group was not given any additional help and their understanding did not improve. After that study was published, more than 130 colleges began math anxiety programs. The dispute continues. Patricia Lund Casserly, a senior research associate with the Educational Testing Service, is among those who believe that results are what really count. "The question of genetic differences doesn't matter to me," she says. "The question is, can girls learn math, can girls make fine scientist and engineers? The answer is yes". 7

Is there a genetic difference? Is there a math gene? In April of 1999 an article in the Phi Delta Kappan addressed the topic of the "Demise of the Asian Gene". The article addressed a myth that Asian Americans perform better on mathematics test, particularly the SAT, and that a "smart gene" is responsible. Research shows that there is a correlation between socioeconomic factors and the ability to do well on math tests. When this is factored in, the Asian Americans students resemble other students. The Education Testing Service also found that Asians were better educated and wealthier than the nation as a whole. This suggests those socioeconomic advantages rather than genes make the difference. Whatever the experts say about why Asians do better than Caucasians or boys do better than girls, the fact is all groups, male and female, and ethnic groups need to be given the same opportunities. If and when children are given the same opportunities, the truth about math ability, or lack of it, will come to the surface.

A study conducted by Educational Testing Services (ETS), the agency that developed the SAT test, noted that the high school seniors from 1980 scored lower than the students from 1960. Thomas Hilton concluded that lower scores were due to the way people spent their time. The more time spent watching TV, meant more time taken away from sports and hobbies that help develop spatial ability. Schools no longer require classes such as sewing, drawing or woodshop, which helped develop one's spatial ability. The SAT exam is supposed to measure a person's aptitude. SAT tests have been heavily criticized. They have been labeled as gender and culturally biased. "The major source of bias, however, cannot be removed by ETS. It lies in the inequities in our society". 8 Students from wealthy and highly educated parents score much higher than students from low income and poorly educated parents. Both males and females from working class neighborhoods score lower than those from middle or wealthy families. The ETS now claims that the SAT is a predictor of a student's college performance rather than ability. Studies show that high school grades are a better predictor than SAT's. We are led to believe that the SAT's measures innate ability. Reality is, the test reveals the education attitude, experience, and ability to take time tests. Not everyone agrees with this. The New York Times in 1989, Steven Goldberg, chair of the sociology department of the City College of New York argued: "It is the male superiority at college performance . . . .No serious researcher questions male superiority in mathematical reasoning". His argument was based on males receiving a higher math score on the SAT. He also stated, "The SAT"s are the best predictor of college performance", and they "emphasized intelligence".9 The New York Times published several letters refuting Golberg's argument. One letter came from the mathematics chairmen from Harvard and Princeton Universities.

Mathematics educators Laurie Hart Reyes and George M.A. Stanic call for a research program to analyze the ways in which race, gender, and socioeconomic status influence the learning of mathematics. We live in a society where racism and sexism exit. What we don't know for sure, is how these ideas affect the learning of math. As we approach the 21^st Century, more than ever before, the American workforce needs to be educated, competitive and equipped for the careers of the future. With the rapid growth of technology, the differences between the highly educated and the uneducated are becoming wider. We need to dispel the myth that minorities and women do not have the ability to perform well in math.

What do we know about the process of learning math? There is a proverb that states, "I hear and I forget; I see, and I remember; I do, and I understand".10 This is true in learning mathematics. Most of us learned math by drill and memorization, working alone at our desks, and shielding our papers from the eyes of others. Too often students just memorize rules without understanding the concepts behind them. The emphasis in math class is on what students do, not on what students understand. According to Marilyn Burns, author of Math:Facing an American Phobia, doing math has to do with thinking and reasoning problems and situations. She also feels children learn by participating in games and activities that involves mathematics. Good teaching means students are helped not only to learn the skills and concepts of math, but also to understand what they learn. Marilyn says "There's a reason mathematics is one of the time honored three R's". "If children don't understand mathematics in the early grades, they won't stick with it later on in school". 11 Teachers need to energize traditional math with Hands-on, Minds-on Activities. Teachers can make mathematics meaningful with stimulating activities. Math today, according to Marilyn Burns needs to focus on helping students understand the math they are studying. The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics has 5 goals for implementing math. Students should learn to reason mathematically, become mathematical problem solvers; learn to communicate mathematically, become confident in their ability to do mathematics and learn to value mathematics. With these goals implemented in today's classroom we would see a significant increase in the number of students that continue on with math. Most children don't continue with math once it becomes an elective. If high school graduates continue to avoid math they will be eliminated from many of today's high paying careers. Employers are seeking employees with the ability to reason and solve problems. If we can understand mathematics we will be able to think, reason and develop problem-solving skills. Is the next generation ready for employment in the 21^st Century?

In USA Today on June 26, 1997, a feature asked the questions "Are students ready for Work?" The survey compared the opinions of employers and high school seniors as to whether they are ready for the workplace. The categories ranged from communication to math skills. Of the students, 62% felt they were prepared, while only 8% of the employers felt they were ready. The National Research Council reports, "Over 75% of all jobs require proficiency in simple algebra and geometry, either as a prerequisite to a training program or as a part of a licensure examination". 12 As we consider the importance of math in business, whether its preparing budgets, making market predictions or coming up with an estimate, math is essential in the sciences and engineering. The medical fields as well as technical jobs rely on people with math expertise.

In conclusion, I feel that whether we are planning our future or trying to improve a career we've already chosen, math is an important part of that process. No one is born with an inability to understand math. Our abilities or inabilities come from our particular life experiences, environment, socioeconomic advantage or disadvantage. There is no "math gene". Whether one is born male or female, I think with practice and diligence anyone can learn to be proficient in math at a level in which one can feel a sense of accomplishment.

Louise Anderson

November 1, 1999

Math G

Claudia Zaslavsky. "Fear of Math How to Get Over It and Get On With Your Life".

Rutgers University Press New Brunswick, New Jersey 1994

Marilyn Burns. "Math: Facing an American Phobia" .Math Solutions Publications 1999

Dennis A. Williams with Patricia King. "Males Have a Math Gene?" Newsweek,

December 15, 1980, v96 pg. 73

Gerald W. Bracey. "Demise of the Asian Gene". Phi Delta Kappan, April 1998 v80 i8

Pg. 619